Mob Violence in Pakistan: A Discursive Socio-Cognitive Critical Discourse Analysis of Media Narratives

Abstract

This study examined media narratives in Pakistan in the context of mob violence. The study aimed to investigate the effects of linguistic patterns, discourse production, and hidden motives behind media narratives on mob violence. The study analysed the language use, organisation of the texts, and the concealed ideologies that underpin the portrayal of social actions and laws related to mob violence. Drawing on media (print and online editions) from primary mainstream sources, the study examined vocabulary, syntax, and themes were employed to reflect such social actors and events. This qualitative research also examined how these portrayals contribute to the preservation of power relations, in-group/out-group ideologies, and cognitive structures that justify or question the crowd's acts of violence. Van Dijk's Socio-Cognitive Model in Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) had been utilised in three cases including the lynching of Mashal Khan in 2017, the murder of Priyantha Kumara in 2021, and the 2023 Jaranwala attacks targeting the Christian community. The significant findings revealed the prevailing religious and political ideologies that stigmatise the victims and perpetrators in many ways, leading to the stratification of social order and persistent moral panic. This study suggested immediate necessity of an ethical press, inclusive media practices, and a critical media pedagogy in media education, which can help remove the roots of discriminatory discourses.

References

Al Jazeera. (2023, August 16). Mobs burn Christian churches and homes in Pakistan after blasphemy allegations. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/16/angry-mobs-burn-christian-churches-in-pakistan-after-blasphemy-allegations

Althusser, L. (1971). Ideology and ideological state apparatuses. In Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays (pp. 142–177). Monthly Review Press.

Amnesty International. (2023, August 17). Pakistan: Authorities must protect Christians against vicious blasphemy attacks. Amnesty International UK. https://www.amnesty.org.uk/press-releases/pakistan-authorities-must-protectchristians-against-vicious-blasphemy-attacks

Ansari, S. (2018). The myth of spontaneous violence: Mashal Khan and the blasphemy law. Pakistan Journal of Criminology, 10(2), 45–67.

Cohen, S. (2002). Folk devils and moral panics: The creation of the mods and rockers (3rd ed.). Routledge.

Daily Times. (2023, August 17). Mob Psychology and Its Effects on Religious Extremism. https://dailytimes.com.pk/1124140/mob-psychology-and-effects-on-religious-extremism/

Daily Times. (2023, August 17). US calls on Pakistan to investigate mob attacks on churches and Christian homes in Faisalabad's Jaranwala. https://dailytimes.com.pk/articles/page/4042/

Dawn. (2017, April 28). Why were they lynched?. https://www.dawn.com/news/1329909

Dawn. (2018, February 7). Mashal Khan lynching: Shooter Imran Ali sentenced to death, five given life imprisonment. https://www.dawn.com/news/1387707

Dawn. (2019, April 1). Mashal's father challenges acquittals in lynching case. https://www.dawn.com/news/1472727

Dawn. (2019, March 19). PTI councillor among two more men handed life in jail over lynching of Mashal Khan. https://www.dawn.com/news/1470986

Gerbner, G., & Gross, L. (1976). Living with television: The violence profile. Journal of Communication, 26(2), 172–199. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1976.tb01397.x

Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the prison notebooks. International Publishers.

Hart, C. (2010). Critical discourse analysis and cognitive science: New perspectives on immigration discourse. Palgrave Macmillan.

Human Rights Commission of Pakistan. (2023). Annual report on religious violence. HRCP.

International Crisis Group. (2021). Lynching in Sialkot: A case study of vigilante justice in Pakistan. ICG.

Mirković, M., Sknepnek, A., Kalijadis, A., Krstić, A., Šuljagić, M., Perić, M., & Andjelković, L. (2025). Nanostructured Sr-doped hydroxyapatite: A material with antimicrobial potential. Nanomaterials, 15(21), 1651. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15211651

Munir, Bakht, Establishment of Military Courts in Pakistan and its Effects on Trichotomy of Powers: International and Domestic Standards (June 30, 2020). Journal of Pakistan Vision, Volume 21, No. 2, 2020 [250-263], Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4916508 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4916508

Siddiqi, T. (2021, December 18). Pakistan: Brutal lynching of Priyantha Kumara. International Action Centre. https://iacenter.org/2021/12/18/pakistan-brutal-lynching-of-priyantha-kumara/

Singay, K. A., & Baig, T. (2020). Mob lynching in Pakistan: An integrated conceptual model. Pakistan Social Sciences Review. https://pssr.org.pk/article/mob-lynching-in-pakistan-an-integrated-conceptual-model

Siraj, S. A. (2009). Critical analysis of press freedom in Pakistan. Journal of Media and Communication Studies, 1(3), 43–47. https://academicjournals.org/article/article1380030555_Siraj.pdf

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behaviour. In S. Worchel & W. G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7–24). Nelson-Hall.

The Express Tribune. (2021, December 4). Sialkot lynching sparks social media outrage. https://tribune.com.pk/story/2332281/sialkot-lynching-sparks-social-mediaoutrage

The Express Tribune. (2021, December 4). The nation is outraged at the Sri Lankan's lynching by a mob. https://tribune.com.pk/story/2332263/nation-outraged-at-sri-lankans-lynching-by-mob

The Express Tribune. (2021, December 5). 120 rounded up over the Sialkot lynching. https://tribune.com.pk/story/2332444/120-rounded-up-over-sialkot-lynching

The Express Tribune. (2021, December 6). Mob also attempted to kill the factory owner in Sialkot: Probe. https://tribune.com.pk/story/2332595/mob-also-attempted-to-killfactory-owner-in-sialkot-probe

The Express Tribune. (2021, December 6). PM lauds 'hero' who tried to rescue Priyantha. https://tribune.com.pk/story/2332587/pm-lauds-hero-who-tried-to-rescue-priyantha

Van Dijk, T. A. (2006). Discourse and manipulation. Discourse & Society, 17(2), 359–383.

Van Dijk, T. A. (2008). Discourse and power. Palgrave Macmillan.

Van Dijk, T. A. (2014). Discourse and knowledge: A socio-cognitive approach. Cambridge University Press.

Wikipedia contributors. (n.d.). Cultivation theory. In Wikipedia. Retrieved May 4, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultivation_theory

Wikipedia contributors. (n.d.). Lynching of Mashal Khan. In Wikipedia. Retrieved May 3, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynching_of_Mashal_Khan

Wikipedia contributors. (n.d.). Mean world syndrome. In Wikipedia. Retrieved May 4, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_world_syndrome

Wodak, R., & Meyer, M. (Eds.). (2016). Methods of critical discourse studies (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.

Zulfiqar, S. H., & Mubashar, M. (2021). Campus violence and extremism: The lynching of Mashal Khan – A case study. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3754639